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Dilediğinizde
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Mustafa
Kemal ATATURK |
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the
founder and first president of Turkish Republic |
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KEMAL ATATURK (
continued ) |
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Ataturk, a Military
Hero, Formed surging Nation |
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Policy
Based on Expediency
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The
course of Turkey's international relations was steered by Ataturk
on an apparent chart of expediency, based on the position that
Turkey occupies as a strong power astride the Dardanelles, separating
Russia from the Mediterranian, facing Germany on the historic
route to Baghdad and balancing Italy's growth along Britain's
"life-line" to the East.
Russia was the first to help Turkey to power. In the post-war
settlement the Soviet opposed in vain the partition of Turkey.
And when Kemal, not yet Ataturk, later undertook to drive out
the Allies Russia supplied arms, materials and funds that contributed
greatly to the final crushing of the Greeks in 1922.
The Soviet thereafter enjoyed a position of preferred friendship
in Turkey, but this cooled about ten years later when it became
evident that the Turkish dictator was willing to have other
friends also.
Britain and France were eager to oblige the Turks. Last July,
when Russia held aloof, Britain lent Turkey $80,000,000, mostly
for arms.
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Germany,
meanwhile, was courting Turkey. So was Italy, Ataturk could
not readily forget, however, that the downfall of the Ottoman
empire had resulted from siding with Germany in the World War
and that Turkey had been among the Entente powers that Italy
had deserted to side with the Allies.
Germany came bearing gifts, however. She offered a commercial
treaty. And she offered a huge credits under which she would
undertake to construct docks for Turkey along the Bosporus,
deliver a fleet of coastwise steamers and build a variety of
factories. Ataturk announced a five-year plan of industrialization.
Moreover, as the Czechoslovak crisis developed he suffered disillusionment
in his belief that Britain was the strongest power in the world.
Turkey concluded a commercial treaty with Germany, accepted
a loan of 150,000,000 marks and proceeded to become Germany's
greatest foreign market. She is currently buying goods and services
from Germany at a yearly rate of about $130,000,000, while selling
to Germany at a yearly rate of $80,000,000.
It became evident to the world that Ataturk had brought Turkey
to the receiving end of several competing international axes
and to the profit position in the adjoining nationality blocs.
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Scorned
Doctors' Advice |
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During
a quarter of a century of war, intrigue and the dictation of
sweeping reforms, however, Ataturk had habitually disregarded
all doctors' orders to take better care of his powerful physique.
Although he was stern and strict in his official life, he was
known to be convivial and carefree in his social life. He frequently
danced and drank all night, or played poker (with great success)
all night, smoking incessantly the while. Then he slept twenty-four
hours without interruption.
A French liver specialist ordered a complete rest for him early
this year, but he disdained it. His people heard of this and
raised such a clamor that Turkey bought him a luxurious yacht
from Richard M. Cadwaladen an American. It had gold-plated bathroom
fitting and gold door knobs. On it he caught a chill last summer
while entertaining King Carol of Rumania. He never completely
recovered.
Almost to the day of death Ataturk struggled to disestablish
the ancient methods of Turkish thought. When the medical profession
of Turkey, which he had reorganized on modern scientific lines,
wished to express appreciation of what he had done for public
health, the best medical thought decided to present a solid
gold bath-tub, eight feet long, five feet wide and four feet
deep.
The best Turkish doctors thought it was the only thing fitted
for the Ghazi-the Conqueror. Ataturk ordered it melted down
and the proceeds expended on bettering the public health.
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Ataturk
presided over a republic about as large as California and New
Mexico combined. Although he rose to power because of his military
ability, a career for which his early education destined him,
his post-war activities were those of a progressive and energetic
administrator.
Emil Ludwig, the German biographer once called him "a man
compared with whom Napoleon was half a dreamer." An outstanding
fact about the dictator's extraordinary career was his consistency
and his patience, his courage and his silence. It was he who
won the peace of Lausanne--the first time for 200 years that
old Asia achieved a victory over Europe.
He was a revolutionary officer who in his Salonika days had
began to oppose the committee of Young Turks; a man for whom
no measure of reform was adequate, who found the policy of Talaat
and Enver superficial, and the alliance with Germany fatal;
the man who made no capital out of the military reputation he
earned at Gallipoli, who twice withdraw from public life, who
with threats warned the last Sultan to turn over a new leaf,
and who after the war, contrived to defeat him and the people
in power in Constantinople, and who was warned, recalled, deposed
and sentenced to death by the then Turkish Government. |
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Having
in his command 20,000 war-worn soldiers, he entered upon the
conflict with the great powers of Europe, and then, for four
whole years, surrounded by foes without and within, waited until
he had overthrown the Sultan, abolished the Caliphate, set free
the essential part of Turkey from the ruins of the old empire,
saved it and reestablished it as a republic. By these achievements
he proved himself a great military leader and statesman.
The President's moustache and fez, prominent features in his
portraits at the time when he rose to power, were given up after
he had established himself. His medium sized, slight figure
was clad in elegant civil dress. His hair was bright and blond.
His furrowed countenance indicated what he had gone through.
He lived, as the first citizen of his country, in a villa situated
among the hills outside the new capital that he had founded.
He had built it in that Turkish style that dates from the period
when French tastes prevailed. Almost unguarded its doors were
left open in true Oriental fashion. |
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Dates
in His Career |
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The historical dates
of the Ghazi's career after the World War are:
On May 16, 1919, the Greeks landed at Smyrna. On June 21 the
future dictator called the assembly of a congress of patriots.
The Sultan dismissed him from the army service on July 8th.
Two weeks later the Ghazi presided at the Congress of Erzerum,
which resolved that "with one accord the entire East will
resist the occupation and the interference of the foreigner."
On Sept. 4 he was elected chairman of a second congress at Sivas,
which resolved "to fight for Turkish integrity." In
October national elections were forced by him, and these resulted
in the defeat of the Sultan's government. British troops, in
March, 1920, took possession of Constantinople, now Istanbul,
and in April he was outlawed and condemned to death by the Sultan.
Shortly afterward the Turkish National Assembly met, elected
the Ghazi President and adopted the national pact, the Magna
Charta of New Turkey. In May the Sultan sent a "Caliph's
army" toward Angora to destroy the nationalist forces.
This army was driven back into Constantinople by the Ghazi.
When the Greeks began their invasion of Asiatic Turkey in June,
1920, he organized an army of defense. On Aug. 10 the Treaty
of Sevres partitioned the Ottoman Empire and divided it among
the European powers.
The Ghazi stopped the Greek army at Sakaria on Sept. 13, 1921.
At the battle of Dumla Puvar, on Aug. 26 1922, he issued an
order to his troops, "Soldiers, your goal is the Mediterranian!
On to it!" A few days later he drove the Greek army into
the sea. He advanced upon Constantinople and the Dardanelles,
and on Oct. 11, 1922, authorized the signing of the armistice
treaty with the Allies at Mudovia, which, in effect, was an
other diplomatic victory for Turkey.
On Nov.1, 1922, the Ghazi abolished the Sultanate, and on Nov.
17 the Sultan fled from Turkey on a British warship. Three days
later the peace conference opened at Lausanne. Ably represented
and supported by his brilliant colleague Ismet Pasha, the Ghazi
won his great diplomatic victory and on Oct.29, 1923, was elected
first President of the Turkish Republic.
Ataturk was born when Abdul Hamid II was Sultan. He was an only
son and he was intended by his mother for the mosque school,
but he became fascinated by the uniforms of the army officers
and was sent to the military preparatory school at
Salonika. |
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Plotted
Against Sultan |
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After attending the
military preparatory school at Salonika, the officers' school
at Monastir and the War Academy at Constantinople, Kemal, then
a head strong youth of 22, entered the army in 1902 with the
rank of lieutenant. Through forbidden literature he became acquainted
with Western ideas of government, which soon led to his hatred
of Abdul Hamid, whom he bitterly opposed. In a small apartment
in the Stamboul section of Constantinople he founded the secret
Society of Liberty. As a result he was arrested and after three
months' confinement in a cell at the ministry of police, was
exiled, being sent to Damascus to join a cavalry regiment. There
he founded local branches of his society, but, being too isolated,
fled to Alexandria and finally reached Salonika by way of Piraeus
in Greece.
When his secret activities were again discovered, he flew to
Akaba and stayed for a while in Syria. He obtained a transfer
to the Third Army's staff at Salonika, merged the Society of
Liberty into the Society of Progress and entrenched his forces
in Salonika, Monastir and Uskup. The revolution of the Young
Turks in 1908 failed, but the Sultan lost his absolute regime
in the counter-revolution of 1909. A quarrel between Kemal and
Enver Pasha, whose rule succeeded that of Abdul Hamid, followed,
and Kemal withdrew from politics in bitter disillusionment. |
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During the following
years he led the life of the average Turkish army officer. He
was exiled by Enver to Tripoli, returned to Salonika, was transferred
to Albania, and again sent to Salonika. Hated by Enver, he was
military attaché at Sofia, Bulgaria, when Turkey joined Germany
in 1914 in a last desperate gamble for the life of the empire.
Kemal, convinced from the first that the empire was in no condition
to enter the war, received command of the Nineteenth Division
and was dispatched to the Dardanelles. He soon commanded all
the Turco-German forces on the peninsula, and his success in
throwing back the British before Anaforta was the most brilliant
achievement of his military career.
This victory made him a great hero in Germany, but it was not
until its story was told in the Committee Year Book for 1917
that Enver permitted it to leak out in Constantinople. Two years
later the Turkish papers began printing the story of Anaforta,
and Enver caused the entire issues to be confiscated. By that
time it had become politically dangerous to mention Kemal's
name in the capital.
Alarmed at Kemal's popularity, Liman von Sanders, the German
generalissimo, transferred him to the Russian front after the
British had evacuated the Dardanelles. He was appointed major
general, in command of the Sixteenth Army, but he came into
conflict with Falkenhayn, threw up his command in protest, and
returned to Aleppo, where he dispatched to Enver a remarkable
statement, outlining the entire political situation at a moment
when a German victory was expected. Pointing out Falkenhayn's
position, he warned: "We shall lose our own country and
Falkenhayn will sacrifice every ounce of gold and every soldier
he can squeeze out of us."
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Exiled
to Germany |
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Enver' reply
to this warning was to give Falkenhayn command of the Palestine
front and to exile Kemal to Germany. For the next year he was
on the German and Austro-Hungarian front. Then Enver recalled
him and gave him the Yilderim command (Fourth, Seventh and Eighth
Armies) on the Palestine front. But it was too late. Kemal reached
his post just as Allenby's great break-through brought the empire
crashing down to its end.
It was figuratively the end of the world for Kemal. He returned
to Constantinople, which had fallen into disorder. The members
of his revolutionary committee had fled, and Damad Ferid Pasha
was to succeed Talaat and Enver. Turkey was virtually surrounded
by her enemies, the Allies forming an iron ring around the remnants
of the old empire. Under the terms of the Mudros armistice,
the Turkish Navy was interned at Constantinople and the army
disarmed. With the Allies in occupation of the capital, Kemal
knew that further attempts were useless. He fled to Asia Minor.
When he ignored Ferid's demand to return, the latter dismissed
him from the army. |
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In
the following struggle between Kemal and Ferid, Kemal was the
final victor. The Anglo-Hellenic rapprochement sent whole provinces
in Asia Minor scurrying to Kemal, with the result that this
part was lost to Ferid. With the Greek occupation of Smyrna
in 1919, which led Kemal to tear up Mudros armistice, the star
of the Ghazi began to rise, and,after his strategic victories,
reached its climax with his diplomatic victory at Lausanne and
his election as first President of the Turkish Republic.
Kemal Ataturk, the "most terrible of all the terrible Turks,"
as he was termed by Earl Balfour, who described him as a brigand,
was always a man who insisted on having his own ideas accepted.
The new Turkey got rid of her Sultans in 1922 but she did not
then dare abolish the Caliphate. The abolition of the Caliphate
was the first step of importance in the life of the new republic.
The next was the reform of the laws. This was achieved in the
space of only a few weeks. The Swiss Civil Code was almost literally
translated, and the best points of the Italian Penal Code were
accepted. Thus the Ghazi, by imposing his will upon the nation,
had altered within three months the entire judiciary.
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ingilizceCi'de
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He ordered the
first census ever to be held on Turkish territory. Although
this was not a reform in itself, it led to reforms of vast importance
which gave the country and the world a definite idea of Turkey's
importance in Near Eastern affairs. The President also made
the Turkish language obligatory as the official language, and
ordered that it be written in Roman instead of Arabic characters.
Capitulations (foreign privileges) were abolished. The Gregorian
calendar was substituted for the Islamic, and the feast of the
Ramazan was fixed by astronomical observation. In every direction
Islamic precedence and prohibitions were broken and violated.
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Changed
the Old Order |
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In its special aspects
the revolution attempted to model the customs of the State upon
Western fashions. The old order was changed. The traditional
fez was abandoned and the Turkish women gave up their veils.
Harems, survival of Byzantium, were forbidden, monogamy became
the law and men and women received equal rights in the matter
of divorce. In 1923 Angora, in the heart of Anatolia, became
officially the capital, as a result of a decree by the President.
He spent money freely to build it and developed a modern city.
He started with Angora as an unkempt little Anatolian village
with narrow streets and mud-brick houses, where the only big
event was a weekly market for the peasants.
According to a German architectural plan by Herman Jansen, the
new capital was laid out in detached sections over an immense
site. From a central citadel, broad paved avenues radiated,
imperiously breaking the natural lines of a hilly plain.
These avenues were lined with handsome edifices in broad arches
and tiles-schools, lyceums, hospitals, dwellings, factories,
laboratories. Automobile traffic moves swiftly in Angora, where
camel caravans used to plod within the memory of many of the
inhabitants. The streets are lighted by electricity. A telephone
exchange and a powerful wireless station were in operation in
Angora by 1925.
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A typical act in the
Ghazi's endeavor to reform the country was the changing of the
name of Constantinople to the old Turkish title Istanbul. This
removed a historic reminder of the days when Occidentals ruled
on the Bosporus. It served also to bolster Turkish nationalistic
feeling.
After the Ottoman dynasty, which for six centuries had been
in power in the empire, had became mere history, Article II
of the constitution of the Turkish Republic declared that "The
religion of the Turkish State is Islam." This article had
to be removed as the final step in Ataturk's endeavor to separate
the church from the State. In 1928 the National Assembly struck
out the article and provided that government servants should
no longer swear by Allah in taking the oath of office, but should
simply swear on their honor. Finally, an official translation
of the Koran was made.
The President married in January in 1923, Latife Hanim, daughter
of a wealthy Turkish merchant of Smyrna. It was reported that
his bride brought him a dowry of 1,000,000Turkish lire. The
Ghazi divorced his wife in 1925 by the simple old procedure
of saying in the presence of witnesses, "I divorce you."
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